Metode dan Teknik Penerjemahan

Terlepas dari perbedaan-perbedaan yang ada, setiap pakar penerjemahan mengelompokkan penerjemahan-penerjemahan di bawah ini ke dalam jenis, metode atau teknik. Peneliti, dalam hal ini, mengadopsi pendapat Newmark (1988) dalam pengelompokan metode penerjemahan. Berdasarkan Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia (KBBI) istilah metode diartikan sebagai cara yang teratur yang digunakan untuk melaksanakan suatu pekerjaan agar tercapai sesuai dengan yang dikehendaki; cara kerja yang bersistem untuk memudahkan pelaksanaan suatu kegiatan guna mencapai tujuan yang ditentukan (2005:740).

Berkaitan dengan batasan istilah metode penerjemahan (Translation Method), Molina dan Albir (2002:507) menyatakan bahwa ”Translation method refers to the way of a particular translation process that is carried out in terms of the translator’s objective, i’e., a global option that affects the whole texts”. Dari batasan tersebut dapat disimpulkan bahwa metode penerjemahan lebih cenderung pada sebuah cara yang digunakan oleh penerjemah dalam proses penerjemahan sesuai dengan tujuannya, misalnya sebuah opsi global penerjemah yang mempengaruhi keseluruhan teks. Jadi metode penerjemahan sangat mempengaruhi hasil terjemahan. Artinya hasil terjemahan teks sangat ditentukan oleh metode penerjemahan yang dianut oleh penerjemah karena maksud, tujuan dan kehendak penerjemah akan berpengaruh terhadap hasil terjemahan teks secara keseluruhan. Hal tersebut diperkuat oleh pendapat Newmark dalam Ordudary (2007:1) yang menyatakan: “[w]hile translation methods relate to whole texts, translation procedures are used for sentences and the smaller units of language”. Selanjutnya Newmark (1988:45) telah mengelompokkan metode-metode penerjemahan berikut ke dalam dua kelompok besar. Empat metode pertama lebih ditekankan pada Bsu, yaitu Word-for-word translation, Literal translation, Faithful translation, dan Semantic translation dan empat metode kedua lebih ditekankan pada Bsa, Adaptation, Free translation, Idiomatic translation, dan Communicative translation.

1. Penerjemahan Kata-demi-kata
Dalam metode penerjemahan kata-demi-kata (word-for-word translation), biasanya kata-kata Tsa langsung diletakkan di bawah versi Tsu atau disebut dengan interlinear translation. Metode penerjemahan ini sangat terikat pada tataran kata, sehingga susunan kata sangat dipertahankan. Dalam melakukan tugasnya, penerjemah hanya mencari padanan kata Bsu dalam Bsa. Susunan kata dalam kalimat terjemahan sama persis dengan susunan kata dalam kalimat Bsu. Setiap kata diterjemahkan satu-satu berdasarkan makna umum atau di luar konteks, sedangkan kata-kata yang berkaitan dengan budaya diterjemahkan secara harfiah. Umumnya metode ini digunakan pada tahapan prapenerjemahan pada saat penerjemah menerjemahkan teks yang sukar atau untuk memahami mekanisme Bsu. Jadi metode ini digunakan pada tahap analisis atau tahap awal pengalihan. Biasanya metode ini digunakan untuk penerjemahan tujuan khusus, namun tidak lazim digunakan untuk penerjemahan yang umum. Kecuali jika struktur kalimat bahasa Inggris sama dengan struktur kalimat bahasa Indonesia (lihat contoh nomor 3 dan 4 di bawah ini) (Catford, 1978:25; Soemarno, 1983:25; Newmark, 1988:45-46; Machali, 2000:50-51; Nababan, 2003:30).
Berikut adalah beberapa contoh hasil terjemahan yang menggunakan contoh metode penerjemahan kata-demi-kata menurut beberapa pakar tersebut di atas:
1. Tsu : Look, little guy, you-all shouldn’t be doing that.
Tsa : *Lihat, kecil anak, kamu semua harus tidak melakukan ini.
Berdasarkan hasil terjemahan tersebut, kalimat Tsu yang dihasilkan sangatlah rancu dan janggal karena susunan frase “kecil anak” tidak berterima dalam tatabahasa Indonesia dan makna frase “harus tidak” itu kurang tepat. Seharusnya kedua frase tersebut menjadi “anak kecil” dan “seharusnya tidak”. Demikian pula dengan kata “that” yang sebaiknya diterjemahkan menjadi “itu” bukan “ini”. Sehingga alternative terjemahan dari kalimat tersebut menjadi:
‘Lihat, anak kecil, kamu semua seharusnya tidak melakukan itu.’
2. Tsu : I like that clever student.
Tsa : *Saya menyukai itu pintar anak.
Hasil terjemahannya tidak berterima dalam bahasa Indonesia karena susunan kata yang benar bukan ’itu pintar anak’ tetapi ’anak pintar itu’, sehingga kalimat yang benar seharusnya: ”Saya menyukai anak pintar itu.”
3. Tsu : I will go to New York tomorrow.
Tsa : Saya akan pergi ke New York besok.
4. Tsu : Joanne gave me two tickects yesterday.
Tsa : Joanne memberi saya dua tiket kemarin.
Hasil terjemahan kalimat ke-3 dan ke-4 tidak separah hasil terjemahan kalimat ke-1 dan ke-2 karena struktur kalimat dari kedua teks tersebut hampir sama. Artinya bahwa hasil terjemahan kedua kalimat tersebut masih dalam kategori berterima walaupun masih terasa janggal. Walaupun demikian ada beberapa alternatif hasil terjemahan yang tampak lebih alamiah dan berterima misalnya:
3. ‘Besok pagi saya akan pergi ke New York.’
4. ‘Kemarin Joanne memberiku dua buah tiket.’

2. Penerjemahan Harfiah
Penerjemahan harfiah (literal translation) atau disebut juga penerjemahan lurus (linear translation) berada di antara penerjemahan kata-demi-kata dan penerjemahan bebas (free translation). Dalam proses penerjemahannya, penerjamah mencari konstruksi gramatikal Bsu yang sepadan atau dekat dengan Bsa. Penerjemahan harfiah ini terlepas dari konteks. Penerjemahan ini mula-mula dilakukan seperti penerjemahan kata-demi-kata, tetapi penerjemah kemudian menyesuaikan susunan kata-katanya sesuai dengan gramatikal Bsa (Soemarno, 1983:25; Newmark, 1988:46; Machali, 2000: 51; Nababan, 2003:33; Moentaha, 2006:48). Perhatikan beberapa contoh berikut:
1. Tsu : Look, little guy, you-all shouldn’t be doing that.
Tsa : Lihat, anak kecil, kamu semua seharusnya tidak berbuat seperti itu.
2. Tsu : It’s raining cats and dogs.
Tsa : Hujan kucing dan anjing.
3. Tsu : His hearth is in the right place.
Tsa : Hatinya berada di tempat yang benar.
4. Tsu : The Sooner or the later the weather will change.
Tsa : Lebih cepat atau lebih lambat cuaca akan berubah.
Jika dilihat dari hasil terjemahannya, beberapa kalimat-kalimat yang diterjemahkan secara harfiah masih terasa janggal, misalnya kalimat ke-2 sebaiknya diterjemahkan “Hujan lebat” atau “Hujan deras”. Kalimat ke-3 sebaiknya diterjemahkan menjadi “Hatinya tenteram”. Namun jika demikian hasil terjemahannya, memang lebih condong pada penerjemahan bebas. Demikian pula dengan kalimat ke-4 sebaiknya diterjemahkan menjadi “Cepat atau lambat cuacanya akan berubah”.

3. Penerjemahan Setia
Dalam penerjemahan setia (faithful translation), penerjemah berupaya mereproduksi makna kontekstual dari teks asli dengan tepat dalam batasan-batasan struktur gramatikal teks sasaran. Di sini kata-kata yang bermuatan budaya diterjemahkan, tetapi penyimpangan tata bahasa dan pilihan kata masih tetap ada atau dibiarkan. Penerjemahan ini berpegang teguh pada maksud dan tujuan Tsu, sehingga hasil terjemahan kadang-kadang masih terasa kaku dan seringkali asing (Newmark, 1988:46; Machali, 2000:51). Perhatikan contoh terjemahan berikut ini:
1. Tsu : Ben is too well aware that he is naughty.
Tsa : Ben menyadari terlalu baik bahwa ia nakal.
2. Tsu : I have quite a few friends.
Tsa : Saya mempunyai samasekali tidak banyak teman.

4. Penerjemahan Semantis
Penerjemahan semantis (semantic translation) lebih luwes daripada penerjemahan setia. Penerjemahan setia lebih kaku dan tidak kompromi dengan kaidah Bsa atau lebih terikat dengan Bsu, sedangkan penerjemahan semantis lebih fleksibel dengan Bsa. Berbeda dengan penerjemahan setia, penerjemahan semantis harus mempertimbangkan unsur estetika teks Bsu dengan cara mengkompromikan makna selama masih dalam batas kewajaran (Newmark, 1988:46; Machali, 2000:52). Perhatikan contoh berikut:
Tsu : He is a book-worm.
Tsa : *Dia (laki-laki) adalah seorang yang suka sekali membaca.
Frase book-worm diterjemahkan secara fleksibel sesuai dengan konteks budaya dan batasan fungsional yang berterima dalam Bsa. Tetapi terjemahan di atas kurang tepat dan seharusnya diterjemahkan menjadi: ’Dia seorang kutu buku.’

5. Adaptasi (Saduran)
Adaptasi (adaptation) oleh Newmark (1988:46) disebut dengan metode penerjemahan yang paling bebas (the freest form of translation) dan paling dekat dengan Bsa. Istilah ”saduran” dapat diterima di sini, asalkan penyadurannya tidak mengorbankan tema, karakter atau alur dalam Tsu. Memang penerjemahan adaptasi ini banyak digunakan untuk menerjemahkan puisi dan drama. Di sini terjadi peralihan budaya Bsa ke Bsu dan teks asli ditulis kembali serta diadaptasikan ke dalam Tsa. Jika seorang penyair menyadur atau mengadaptasi sebuah naskah drama untuk dimainkan, maka ia harus tetap mempertahankan semua karakter dalam naskah asli dan alur cerita juga tetap dipertahankan, namun dialog Tsu sudah disadur dan disesuaikan dengan budaya Bsa.
Berikut adalah contoh lirik lagu dari sebuah yang disadur dari bahasa Inggris ke dalam bahasa Indonesia (http://anotherfool.wordpress.com):
Tsu : Hey Jude, don’t make it bad
Take a sad song and make it better
Remember to let her into your heart
Then you can start to make it better
(Hey Jude-The Beatles, 196)
Tsa : Kasih, dimanakahMengapa kau tinggalkan aku
Ingatlah-ingatlah kau padaku
Janji setiamu tak kan kulupa

6. Penerjemahan Bebas
Penerjemahan bebas (free translation) merupakan penerjemahan yang lebih mengutamakan isi dari pada bentuk teks Bsu. Biasanya metode ini berbentuk parafrase yang lebih panjang daripada bentuk aslinya, dimaksudkan agar isi atau pesan lebih jelas diterima oleh pengguna Bsa. Terjemahannya bersifat bertele-tele dan panjang lebar, bahkan hasil terjemahannya tampak seperti bukan terjemahan (Newmark, 1988:46; Machali, 2003:53). Soemarno (2001:33-37) memberi contoh sebagai berikut:
1. Tsu : The flowers in the garden.
Tsa : Bunga-bunga yang tumbuh di kebun.
2. Tsu : How they live on what he makes?
Tsa : Bagaimana mereka dapat hidup dengan penghasilannya?
Dalam contoh nomor 1 terjadi pergeseran yang disebut dengan shunt up (langsir ke atas), karena dari frase preposisi in the garden menjadi klausa ’yang tumbuh di kebun’. Sedangkan pada nomor 2 terjadi pergeseran yang disebut dengan shunt down (langsir ke bawah), karena klausa on what he makes menjadi frase ’dengan penghasilannya’. Contoh-contoh lainnya adalah:
3. Tsu : Tatik is growing with happiness.
Tsa : Tati, hatinya berbunga-bunga.
4. Tsu : Look, little guy, you-all shouldn’t be doing this.
Tsa : Dengar nak, mengapa kamu semua melakukan hal-
hal seperti ini. Ini tidak baik.
Berikut adalah sebuah contoh terjemahan bebas yang tampak sangat ekstrim yang dikemukakan oleh Moentaha (2006:52):
5. Tsu : I kissed her.
Tsa : Saya telah mencetak sebuah ciuman pada bibirnya yang merah.
Terjemahan di atas tampak lebih radikal, sekalipun tetap mempertahankan isi atau pesan. Padahal terjemahannya bisa saja menjadi ’Saya telah menciumnya’.

7. Penerjemahan Idiomatik
Larson dalam Choliludin (2006:23) mengatakan bahwa terjemahan idiomatik (idiomatic translation) menggunakan bentuk alamiah dalam teks Bsa-nya, sesuai dengan konstruksi gramatikalnya dan pilihan leksikalnya. Terjemahan yang benar-benar idiomatik tidak tampak seperti hasil terjemahan. Hasil terjemahannya seolah-olah seperti hasil tulisan langsung dari penutur asli. Maka seorang penerjemah yang baik akan mencoba menerjemahkan teks secara idiomatik. Newmark (1988:47) menambahkan bahwa penerjemahan idiomatik mereproduksi pesan dalam teks Bsa dengan ungkapan yang lebih alamiah dan akrab daripada teks Bsu.
Choliludin (2006:222-225) memberi beberapa contoh terjemahan idiomatik sebagai berikut:
1. Tsu : Salina!, Excuse me, Salina!
Tsa : Salina!, Permisi, Salina!
2. Tsu : I can relate to that.
Tsa : Aku mengerti maksudnya.
3. Tsu : You’re cheery mood.
Tsa : Kamu kelihatan ceria.
4. Tsu : Tell me, I am not in a cage now.
Tsa : Ayo, berilah aku semangat bahwa aku orang bebas.
5. Tsu : Excuse me?
Tsa : Maaf, apa maksud Anda?

8. Penerjemahan Komunikatif
Menurut Newmark (1988:47), penerjemahan komunikatif (communicative translation) berupaya untuk menerjemahkan makna kontekstual dalam teks Bsu, baik aspek kebahasaan maupun aspek isinya, agar dapat diterima dan dimengerti oleh pembaca. Machali (2000:55) menambahkan bahwa metode ini memperhatikan prinsip-prinsip komunikasi, yaitu mimbar pembaca dan tujuan penerjemahan. Contoh dari metode penerjemahan ini adalah penerjemahan kata spine dalam frase thorns spines in old reef sediments. Jika kata tersebut diterjemahkan oleh seorang ahli biologi, maka padanannya adalah spina (istilah teknis Latin), tetapi jika diterjemahkan untuk mimbar pembaca yang lebih umum, maka kata itu diterjemahkan menjadi ’duri’.
Di samping itu Nababan (2003:41) menjelaskan bahwa penerjemahan komunikatif pada dasarnya menekankan pengalihan pesan. Metode ini sangat memperhatikan pembaca atau pendengar Bsa yang tidak mengharapkan adanya kesulitan-kesulitan dan ketidakjelasan dalam teks terjemahan. Metode ini juga sangat memperhatikan keefektifan bahasa terjemahan. Kalimat ’Awas Anjing Galak’ dapat diterjemahkan menjadi Beware of the dog! daripada Beware of the vicious dog! Karena bagaimanapun juga kalimat terjemahan ke-1 sudah mengisyaratkan bahwa anjing itu galak (vicious).
Berdasarkan pengamatan peneliti, setiap penerjemah memiliki gaya masing-masing dalam menerjemahkan suatu karya. Gaya yang dia pakai akan sangat berkaitan erat, misalnya, dengan metode penerjemahkaan yang dia gunakan bergantung tujuan penerjemahan yang dia lakukan. Di antara para penerjemah ada yang menggunakan metode penerjemahan setia, seperti yang telah dilakukan oleh penerjemah novel Harry Potter and the Phylosopher’s Stone. Alasannya adalah bahwa dia tidak mau melepaskan makna kontekstual dalam Tsu-nya. Dia berusaha mempertahankan istilah-istilah yang berkaitan dengan sosio-budaya dan latar dari Bsu, misalnya mempertahankan kata Mr dan Mrs serta nama-nama diri para karakter dalam novel itu. Dia tidak melakukan suatu adaptasi atau domestikasi tetapi mempertahankan ideology forenisasinya. Ini dilakukan demi menjaga keaslian unsur-unsur ceritera dan nilai-nilai budaya yang melatari ceritera tersebut sehingga pembaca diajak untuk mengenali tema, karakter, latar dan atmosfir budaya asing. Para penerjemah novel lainnya masing-masing berbeda dalam memilih metode penerjemahan. Di antaranya ada yang menggunakan penerjemahan bebas, semantis, idiomatik, dan adaptasi. Hal tersebut dilakukan bergantung kepada kebiasaan serta gaya yang menjadi ciri khas mereka. Mungkin pula bergantung pada tujuan penerjemahan itu sendiri.
http://kiflipaputungan.wordpress.com/2010/06/12/metode-penerjemahan-bahasa-ala-newmark/

Reading Main Idea Practice Questions

1. Americans have always been interested in their Presidents' wives. Many First Ladies have been remembered because of the ways they have influenced their husbands. Other First Ladies have made the history books on their own.

At least two First Ladies, Bess Truman and Lady Bird Johnson, made it their business to send signals during their husbands' speeches. When Lady Bird Johnson thought her husband was talking too long, she wrote a note and sent it up to the platform. It read, “It's time to stop!” And he did. Once Bess Truman didn't like what her husband was saying on television, so she phoned him and said,” If you can't talk more politely than that in public, you come right home.”

Abigail Fillmore and Eliza Johnson actually taught their husbands, Millard Fillmore and Andrew Johnson, the thirteenth and seventeenth Presidents. A schoolteacher, Abigail eventually married her pupil, Millard. When Eliza Johnson married Andrew, he could not read or write, so she taught him herself.

It was First Lady Helen Taft's idea to plant the famous cherry trees in Washington, D. C. Each spring these blossoming trees attract thousands of visitors to the nation's capital. Mrs. Taft also influenced the male members of her family and the White House staff in a strange way: she convinced them to shave off their beards!

Shortly after President Wilson suffered a stroke, Edith Wilson unofficially took over most of the duties of the Presidency until the end of her husband's term. Earlier, during World War I, Mrs. Wilson had had sheep brought onto the White House lawn to eat the grass. The sheep not only kept the lawn mowed but provided wool for an auction sponsored by the First Lady. Almost $100,000 was raised for the Red Cross.

Dolly Madison saw to it that a magnificent painting of George Washington was not destroyed during the War of 1812. As the British marched toward Washington, D. C., she remained behind to rescue the painting, even after the guards had left. The painting is the only object from the original White House that was not burned.

One of the most famous First Ladies was Eleanor Roosevelt, the wife of President Franklin D. Roosevelt. She was active in political and social causes throughout her husband's tenure in office. After his death, she became famous for her humanitarian work in the United Nations. She made life better for thousands of needy people around the world.

What is the main idea of this passage?

A. The Humanitarian work of the First Ladies is critical in American government.
B. Dolly Madison was the most influential president's wife.
C. Eleanor Roosevelt transformed the First Lady image.
D. The First Ladies are important in American culture.
E. The First Ladies are key supporters of the Presidents.

2. Of the many kinds of vegetables grown all over the world, which remains the favorite of young and old alike? Why, the potato, of course.

Perhaps you know them as “taters,” “spuds,” or “Kennebees,” or as “chips,” “Idahoes,” or even “shoestrings.” No matter, a potato by any other name is still a potato- the world's most widely grown vegetable. As a matter of fact, if you are an average potato eater, you will put away at least a hundred pounds of them each year.

That's only a tiny portion of the amount grown every year, however. Worldwide, the annual potato harvest is over six billion bags- each bag containing a hundred pounds of spuds, some of them as large as four pounds each. Here in the United States, farmers fill about four hundred million bags a year. That may seem like a lot of “taters,” but it leaves us a distant third among world potato growers. Polish farmers dig up just over 800 million bags a year, while the Russians lead the world with nearly 1.5 billion bags.

The first potatoes were grown by the Incas of South America, more than four hundred years ago. Their descendants in Ecuador and Chile continue to grow the vegetable as high as fourteen thousand feet up in the Andes Mountains. ( That's higher than any other food will grow.) Early Spanish and English explorers shipped potatoes to Europe, and they found their way to North America in the early 1600s.

People eat potatoes in many ways-baked, mashed, and roasted, to name just three. However, in the United States most potatoes are devoured in the form of French fries. One fast-food chain alone sells more than $1 billion worth of fries each year. No wonder, then, that the company pays particular attention to the way its fries are prepared.

Before any fry makes it to the people who eat at these popular restaurants, it must pass many separate tests. Fail any one and the spud is rejected. To start with, only russet Burbank potatoes are used. These Idaho potatoes have less water content than other kinds, which can have as much as eighty percent water. Once cut into “shoestrings” shapes, the potatoes are partly fried in a secret blend of oils, sprayed with liquid sugar to brown them, steam dried at high heat, then flash frozen for shipment to individual restaurants.

Before shipping, though, every shoestring is measured. Forty percent of a batch must be between two and three inches long. Another forty percent has to be over three inches. What about the twenty percent that are left in the batch? Well, a few short fries in a bag are okay, it seems.

So, now that you realize the enormous size and value of the potato crop, you can understand why most people agree that this part of the food industry is no “small potatoes.”

What is the main idea of this passage?

A. Potatoes from Ireland started the Potato Revolution.
B. The average American eats 50 lbs of potatoes a year.
C. French fries are made from potatoes.
D. Potatoes are a key vegetable in America.
E. The various terms for potatoes have a long history.

3. What does the word patent mean to you? Does it strike you as being something rather remote from your interests? If it does, stop and think a moment about some of the commonplace things that you use every day, objects that you take for granted as part of the world around you. The telephone, radio, television, the automobile, and the thousand and one other things (even the humble safety pin) that enrich our lives today once existed only as ideas in the minds of men. If it had not been possible to patent their ideas and thus protect them against copying by others, these inventions might never have been fully developed to serve mankind.

If there were no patent protection there would be little incentive to invent and innovate, for once the details of an invention became known, hordes of imitators who did not share the inventor's risks and expenses might well flood the market with their copies of his product and reap much of the benefit of his efforts. The technological progress that has made America great would wither rapidly under conditions such as these.

The fundamental principles in the U. S. patent structure came from England. During the glorious reign of Queen Elizabeth I in England, the expanding technology was furthered by the granting of exclusive manufacturing and selling privileges to citizens who had invented new processes or tools- a step that did much to encourage creativity. Later, when critics argued that giving monopoly rights to one person infringed on the rights of others, an important principle was added to the patent structure: The Lord Chief Justice of England stated that society had everything to gain and nothing to lose by granting exclusive privileges to an inventor, because a patent for an invention was granted for something new that society never had before.

Another basic principle was brought into law because certain influential people in England had managed to obtain monopoly control over such age-old products as salt, and had begun charging as much as the traffic would bear. The public outcry became so great that the government was forced to decree that monopoly rights could be awarded only to those who created or introduced something really unique. These principles are the mainstays of our modern patent system in the United States.

In colonial times patent law was left up to the separate states. The inconsistency, confusion, and unfairness that resulted clearly indicated the need for a uniform patent law, and the men who drew up the Constitution incorporated one. George Washington signed the first patent law on April 10,1790, and less than four months later the first patent was issued to a man named Samuel Hopkins for a chemical process, an improved method of making potash for use in soapmaking.

In 1936 the Patent Office was established as a separate bureau. From the staff of eight that it maintained during its first year of operation it has grown into an organization of over 2500 people handling more than 1600 patent applications and granting over 1000 every week.

The Patent Office in Washington, D. C., is the world's largest library of scientific and technical data, and this treasure trove of information is open for public inspection. In addition to more than 3 million U. S. patents, it houses more than 7 million foreign patents and thousands of volumes of technical literature. Abraham Lincoln patented a device to lift steam vessels over river shoals, Mark Twain developed a self-pasting scrapbook, and millionaire Cornelius Vanderbilt invented a shoe-shine kit.

A patent may be granted for any new and useful process, machine, article of manufacture, or composition of matter ( a chemical compound or combinations of chemical compounds), or any distinct and new variety; of plant, including certain mutants and hybrids.

The patent system has also helped to boost the wages of the American worker to an unprecedented level; he can produce more and earn more with the computer, adding machines, drill press or lathe. Patented inventions also help keep prices down by increasing manufacturing efficiency and by stimulating the competition that is the foundation of our free enterprise system.

The decades of history have disclosed little need for modification of the patent structure. Our patent laws, like the Constitution from which they grew, have stood the test of time well. They encouraged the creative processes, brought untold benefits to society as a whole, and enabled American technology to outstrip that of the rest of the civilized world.

What is the main idea of this passage?

A. The patent system encourages free enterprise.
B. The Constitution protects the patent system.
C. The patent system in England has been influential in American patent development.
D. Patents are important tools for inventors.
E. Patented inventions protect the inventor, free enterprise, and the creative process.

4. Most people think it's fine to be “busy as a beaver.” Little do they know. Beavers may work hard, but often they don't get much done.

Beavers are supposed to be great tree cutters. It is true that a beaver can gnaw through a tree very quickly. (A six-inch birch takes about ten minutes.) But then what? Often the beaver does not make use of the tree. One expert says that beavers waste one out of every five trees they cut.

For one thing, they do not choose their trees wisely. One bunch of beavers cut down a cottonwood tree more than one hundred feet tall. Then they found that they could not move it.

In thick woods a tree sometimes won't fall down. It gets stuck in the other trees. Of course, doesn't think to cut down the trees that are in the way. So a good tree goes to waste.

Some people think that beavers can make a tree fall the way they want it to. Not true. (In fact, a beaver sometimes gets pinned under a falling tree.) When beavers cut a tree near a stream, it usually falls into the water. But they do not plan it that way. The fact is that most trees lean toward the water to start with.

Now what about dam building? Most beaver dams are wonders of engineering. The best ones are strongly built of trees, stones, and mud. They are wide at the bottom and narrow at the top.

Beavers think nothing of building a dam more than two hundred feet long. One dam, in Montana, was more than two thousand feet long. The largest one ever seen was in New Hampshire. It stretched four thousand feet. It made a lake large enough to hold forty beaver homes.

So beavers do build good dams. But they don't always build them in the right places. They just don't plan. They will build a dam across the widest part of the stream. They don't try to find a place where the stream is narrow. So a lot of their hard work is wasted.

Beavers should learn that it's not enough to be busy. You have to know what you're doing, too. For example, there was one Oregon beaver that really was a worker. It decided to fix a leak in a man-made dam. After five days of work it gave up. The leak it was trying to block was the lock that boats go through.

What is the main idea of this passage?

A. Beavers may be hard working animals, but they don't always choose the most efficient mechanisms.
B. Beavers are excellent dam builders.
C. New Hampshire was the site of the largest beaver dam.
D. Beavers are well developed tree cutters.
E. Beavers are poor surveyors of aquatic environments in some cases.

5. The raisin business in America was born by accident. It happened in 1873 in the San Joaquin Valley of California. Many farmers raised grapes in this valley. That year, just before the grape harvest, there was a heat wave. It was one of the worst heat waves ever known. It was so hot the grapes dried on the vines. When they were picked, California had its first raisin crop.

People were surprised to find how good raisins were. Everybody wanted more. So the San Joaquin farmers went into the raisin business. Today, of course, they do not let the grapes dry on the vines. They treat them with much more care.

In late August the grapes start to ripen. They are tested often for sweetness. The growers wait until the sugar content is twenty-one percent. Then they know the grapes are ripe enough to be picked.

Skilled workers come to the vineyards. They pick the bunches of grapes by hand. The workers fill their flat pans with grapes. They gently empty the pans onto squares of paper. These squares lie between the long rows of vines. They sit in the sun.

Here the grapes stay while the sun does its work. It may take two weeks or longer. The grapes are first dried on one side. When they have reached the right color, they are turned to dry on the other side. The grapes are dried until only fifteen percent of the moisture is left. Then they have turned into raisins.

The raisins are rolled up in the paper on which they have dried. Trucks take them from the fields. They are poured into big boxes called sweatboxes. Each box holds one hundred and sixty pounds of raisins. Here, any raisins that are a bit too dry take moisture from those that have a bit too much. After a while they are all just moist enough.

The big boxes are trucked next to the packaging plant. They are emptied onto a conveyor belt that shakes the raisins gently. This knocks them from their stems. A blast of air whisks the stems away. The water bath is next. Then the plump brown raisins have a last inspection. They are again checked for moisture and sugar. Then they go on a belt to packing machines. Here they are poured into packages, which are automatically weighed and sealed. The raisins are now ready for market.

What is the main idea of this passage?

A. The creation of raisins in America was an accident.
B. The process of raisin development requires multiple steps.
C. Raisins on the grocery store shelf undergo a brief fermentation process.
D. Raisins are cleaned thoroughly at the packing plant.
E. California has been the leader in American raisin development.

6. In 1976, Sichan Siv was crawling through the jungle, trying to escape from Cambodia. By 1989, however, Siv was working in the White House, in Washington D. C., as an advisor to the President of the United States. How did this strange journey come about?

Like millions of Cambodians, Siv was a victim of a bloody civil war. One of the sides in this war was the Cambodian government. The other was a group called the Khmer Rouge. When the Khmer Rouge won the war, the situation in Cambodia got worse. Many people were killed, while others were forced into hard labor. Sometimes entire families were wiped out.

Siv came from a large family that lived in the capital of Cambodia. After finishing high school, Siv worked for a while with a Cambodian airline company. Later, he taught English. After that, he took a job with CARE, an American group that was helping victims of the war.

Siv had hope to leave Cambodia before the Khmer Rouge took over the country. Unfortunately, he was delayed. As a result, he and his family were taken from their homes and forced to labor in rice fields. After a while, Siv managed to escape. He rode an old bicycle for miles, trying to reach Thailand where he would be free and safe. For three weeks he slept on the ground and tried to hide from the soldiers who were looking for him. Caught at last, he was afraid he would be killed. Instead, he was put into a labor camp, where he worked eighteen hours each day without rest. After several months, he escaped again; this time he made it. The journey, however, was a terrifying one. After three days of staggering on foot through mile after mile of thick bamboo, Siv finally made his way to Thailand.

Because he had worked for an American charity group, Siv quickly found work in a refugee camp. Soon he was on his way to the states. He arrived in June of 1976 and got a job-first picking apples and then cooking in a fast-food restaurant. Siv, however, wanted more than this; he wanted to work with people who, like himself, had suffered the hardship of leaving their own countries behind. Siv decided that the best way to prepare for this kind of work was to go to college. He wrote letters to many colleges and universities. They were impressed with his school records from Cambodia, and they were impressed with his bravery. Finally, in 1980, he was able to study at Columbia University in New York City. After finishing his studies at Columbia, Siv took a job with the United Nations. He married an American woman and became a citizen. After several more years, he felt that he was very much a part of his new country.

In 1988, Siv was offered a job in the White House working for President Reagan's closest advisors. It was a difficult job, and he often had to work long hours. However the long hard work was worth it, because Siv got the opportunity to help refugees in his work.

What is the main idea of this passage?

A. Persistence and courage are global ideas.
B. Siv covered a large area during his life.
C. Siv persevered to become an American citizen
D. Siv overcame numerous challenges to come to American and help others.
E. Siv persevered to become an American citizen.

7. When you want to hang the American flag over the middle of a street, suspend it vertically with the blue field, called the union, to the north and east-west street. When the flag is displayed with another banner from crossed staffs, the American flag is on the right. Place the staff of the American flag in front of the other staff. Raise the flag quickly and lower it slowly and respectfully. When flying the flag at half-mast, hoist it to the top of the pole for a moment before lowering it to mid-pole. When flying the American flag with banners from states or cities, raise the nation's banner first and lower it last. Never allow the flag to touch the ground.

What is the main idea of this passage?

A. The American flag is the symbol of American freedom.
B. The American flag has fifty stars.
C. Placing the American flag inappropriately will draw government intervention.
D. American flag should be flown differently in certain situations.
","The flag should be lowered quickly and respectfully.

8. What if someone told you about a kind of grass that grows as tall as the tallest trees? A grass that can be made as strong as steel? A grass from which houses, furniture, boats, and hundreds of other useful things can be made? A grass that you would even enjoy eating? Would you believe that person? You should, for that grass is bamboo, the “wood” of 1,001 uses.

Bamboo may look like wood, but it is part of the family of plants that includes wheat, oats, and barley. It is a kind of grass. This grass is not just a material for making useful products. Young bamboo is eaten, often mixed with other vegetables, in many Asian foods.

Bamboo grows in many parts of the world. In the United States it grows in an area from Virginia west to Indiana and south to Florida, Louisiana, and Texas. Most bamboo, however, is found in warm, wet climates, especially in Asia and on the islands of the South Pacific Ocean.

In most Asian countries, bamboo is nearly as important as rice. Many Asians live in bamboo houses. They sit on bamboo chairs and sleep on bamboo mats. They fence their land with bamboo and use the wood for cages for chickens and pigs.

Bamboo is used to build large buildings as well as homes. When it is glued in layers, it becomes as strong as steel. On some islands in the South Pacific, bamboo is even used for water pipes. This extraordinary material has many other uses. It is used to make musical instruments, such as flutes and recorders. Paper made from bamboo has been highly prized by artists for thousands of years.

Bamboo is light and strong, and it bends without breaking. It is cheap, floats on water, almost never wears out, and is easy to grow. Nothing else on earth grows quite so fast as bamboo. At times you can even see it grow! Botanists have recorded growths of more than three feet in just twenty-four hours! Bamboo is hollow and has a strong root system that almost never stops growing and spreading. In fact, only after it flowers, an event that may happen only once every thirty years, will bamboo die.

There are more than a thousand kinds of bamboo. The smallest is only three inches tall and one-tenth of an inch across. The largest reaches more than two hundred feet in height and seven inches in diameter. No wonder, then, that the lives of nearly half the people on earth would change enormously if there were no longer any bamboo. No wonder, too, that to many people bamboo is a symbol of happiness and good fortune.

What is the main idea of this passage?

A. Bamboo has at least 2,000 uses.
B. Bamboo grows at an amazing rate and is found primarily in Asia.
C. Bamboo is an amazing grass that can be used in multiple ways.
D. There are at least a 1,000 types of bamboo.
E. Bamboo could be considered a flower in some cases.

9. Every year since 1986, some of the world's most daring runners have gathered in the desert of Morocco. They are there to take part in one of the most difficult races in the world. The Marathon of the Sands, as it is called, covers over 125 miles of desert and mountain wilderness. The runners complete the course in fewer than seven days, and they run with their food, clothing, and sleeping bags on their backs.

The Marathon of the Sands was founded in 1986 by Patrick Bauer. His idea was to give the runners, who come from all over the world, a special kind of adventure. Most of the runners in this race have found that they form deep friendships with the other runners during their days and nights in the desert. Facing terrible heat and complete exhaustion, they learn much about themselves and each other.

For most of the runners, though, the challenge of the race is the main reason for coming. On the first day, for example, they run fifteen miles across a desert of sand, rocks, and thorny bushes. Few runners finish the day without blistered and raw feet. They also suffer from a lack of water. (They are allowed less than nine quarts of water during each day of the race.) Most of all, they are exhausted when they arrive at the campsite for the night.

The second day, the runners are up at 6:00 A. M. Within a few hours, it is 100 degrees F, but the runners do not hesitate. They must cover eighteen miles that day. That night, they rest. They must be ready for the next day's run.

On the third day, the runners must climb giant sand dunes- the first they have faced. Dust and sand mix with the runners' sweat. Soon their faces are caked with mud. After fifteen miles of these conditions, the runners finally reach their next camp.

The race continues like this for four more days. The fourth and fifth days are the worst. On the fourth day, the runners pass through a level stretch and a beautiful, tree-filled oasis, but then, on this and on the next day, they cross more than twenty-one miles of rocks and sand dunes. The temperature soars to 125 degrees F, and many runners cannot make it. Helicopters rush fallen runners to medical help. Runners who make it to the end of the fifth day know that the worst is over.

On the sixth day, heat and rocks punish the racers terribly. In the Valley of Dra, the wind picks up and, as the desert heat is thrust against them with great force, they grow more and more exhausted.

The seventh day is the last, with only twelve miles to be covered. The dusty, tired, blistered runners set out at daybreak. Near the finish line, children race along with the runners, for everybody has caught the excitement. The ones who have run the whole marathon know they have accomplished what most people could not even dream of. “During the hard moments,” says one contestant who has raced here twice, “I'd think, ‘Why am I here?' Then I'd realize I was there to find my limits.”

What is the main idea of this passage?

A. The Marathon of the Sands race tests the limits of human endurance.
B. The runners run at their own pace.
C. The race causes the strong to stumble and the weak to not finish.
D. The seventh day is the hardest day of the race.
E. Every runner runs the race to find their human limits.

10. High in the Andes Mountains in Peru stands the ancient city of Machu Picchu. No one knows why this great city was built, nor is it likely that we will ever know. Nevertheless, the deserted city of Machu Picchu is important for what it reveals about the ancient Inca people of South America.

The Incas once ruled a great empire that covered a large part of the South American continent. The empire was more than five hundred years old when the first Spanish explorers, looking for gold, went to that continent in the sixteenth century.

The Incas were an advanced people. They were skillful engineers who paved their roads and built sturdy bridges. They plowed the land in such a way that rains would not wash away valuable soil. They dug ditches to carry water into dry areas for farming.

Even though they did not know about the wheel, the Incas were able to move huge stone blocks- some as heavy as ten tons- up the sides of mountains to build walls. The blocks were fitted so tightly, without cement of any kind, that it would be impossible to slip a knife blade between them! The walls have stood firm through great storms and earthquakes that have destroyed many modern buildings.

The Incas were great artists, too. Today, Incan dishes and other kinds of pottery are prized for their wonderful designs. Since both gold and silver were in great supply, the Incas created splendid objects from these precious metals.

While it is true that the Incas had no written language, they kept their accounts by using a system of knotted strings of various lengths and colors. The sizes of the knots and the distances between them represented numbers.

At its height, the Incan empire included as many as thirty million people. The emperor ruled them with an iron hand. He told his subjects where to live, what to plant, how long they should work-even whom they could marry. Since he owned everything, the emperor gave what he wished when he wished- and in the amount he wished -to his people.

In 1533 Spanish explorers led by Francisco Pizarro murdered the emperor of the Incas. Earlier, the heir to the Incan empire had also been killed. The Incas, who had always been entirely dependent on their emperor, now had no recognized leader. The Spaniards easily conquered the empire and plundered its riches.

Have the Incas disappeared from South America? Not at all. In Peru alone, once the center of that great empire, eighty percent of the twenty million people are descendants of the Inca people. Evidence of the Incan empire can be found in many other places in South America as well. You can even visit Machu Picchu. The remains of this ancient city still stand high in the mountains of Peru, an awesome tribute to this once powerful empire.

What is the main idea of this passage?

A. The Incas once inhabited the ancient city of Machu Picchu.
B. Peru was the primary country of the Incas.
C. The Incan empire can be found in ancient cities and was plundered by the Spanish.
D. Spanish conquerors destroyed the Incan empire in the thirteenth century.
E. Machu Picchu was the capital of the Incan empire.

Answer Key
1. D
2. D
3. E
4. A
5. B
6. D
7. D
8. C
9. A
10. C 

http://www.testprepreview.com/modules/readingmainidea.htm

text dalam wacana

text dalam wacana

READING COMPREHENSION SKILLS

1. Scanning : Mencari sepenggal informasi dalam suatu bacaan. Gunanya untuk mencari informasi tertentu secara cepat dan keterampilan ini mendukung keterampilan reference.
2. Skimming : Membaca kalimat demi kalimat sekilas atau secara cepat untuk membantu menentukan topic noun, main idea, atau topic sentence.
3. Topic noun : Kata atau frase benda yang menjiwai seluruh paragraf atau bacaan. Biasanya topic noun nempel di main idea atau topic sentence. Cara mudah untuk mencari topic noun adalah dengan menghitung mana yang paling sering muncul atau diulang-ulang dalam sebuah paragraf atau bacaan, baik langsung maupun menggunakan reference atau acuannya.
4. Reference : Kata ganti benda yang mengacu pada nama diri (nama orang atau tokoh, tempat, benda, dan lain-lain atau adverb of time or place). Reference adalah kata atau frase benda atau kata keterangan yang posisinya sebagai subjek atau objek di dalam kalimat, atau kadang-kadang ada juga sebagai kata keterangan dalam kalimat. Reference meliputi personal pronoun sebagai berikut : I, my, me, mine, you, your, yours, he, his, him, she, her, hers, they, their, them, theirs, we, our, us, ours, boy, girl, man, one(s), it, its, atau pengganti kata keterangan seperti : there, here, in the town or city, at the time, dan seterusnya.
5. Topic sentence or main idea : Apa yang dibicarakan suatu bacaan atau paragraf. Bersifat umum dan diacu oleh kalimat lain.
6. Supporting details : Kalimat-kalimat yang mendukung, melengkapi, menjelaskan, merinci, atau memperjelas main idea atau topic sentence. Sifatnya khusus dan menjawab bagian dari main idea or topic sentence atau kalimat penjelas sebelumnya.

BENTUK-BENTUK WACANA

• Recount adalah bentuk wacana yang isinya menceritakan suatu kisah atau peristiwa, perjalanan, dan lain-lain secara terperinci. Tujuannya untuk menceritakan atau menguraikan kejadian atau perjalanan yang dialami sendiri atau seolah-olah dialami sendiri. Biasanya subjeknya I atau we. Urutan bagian dalam wacana : Orientation - series of events - Reorientation. Orientation itu seperti intro dalam lagu, Record of event urutan kejadian, sedangkan Reorientation merupakan penutup (biasanya ungkapan atan penilaian pribadi atas apa yang telah dialami atau diceritakan).
• Narrative atau narasi adalah wacana yang biasanya berbentuk dongeng. Urutan isi dalam wacana adalah Orientation - Complication - Resolution. Dalam sebuah wacana bisa saja ada beberapa complication dengan beberapa resolution-nya. Perbedaan narasi dengan recount adalah kalau recount tidak ada konflik (complication) sedangkan dalam narrative ada konflik (complication) atau mudahnya dalam narasi pasti timbul masalah. Misalnya dalam cerita Cinderella, saat Cinderella disekap di rumah untuk bekerja keras dan tidak bisa menghadiri pesta; ini namanya masalah. Tiba-tiba peri datang menolongnya; adalah resolution. Tujuan dari narasi adalah menghibur (to entertain), menasehati (to advice), dan transfer tata nilai kehidupan.
• Descriptive adalah wacana yang menggambarkan suatu tempat atau lokasi, karakter, peristiwa, atau istilah dengan jelas. Urutan isi dalam wacana : Identification or definition - description of characters or parts or qualities. Setelah pembaca membaca wacana itu, dia menjadi tahu apa sesuatu atau nama atau tempat itu. Tujuan wacana ini adalah untuk memberikan gambaran yang jelas atau menjelaskan kepada pembaca. Wacana ini biasanya diawali dengan definisi. Contoh: Apakah lautan itu? Lautan adalah daerah luas yang terdiri dari air yang dalam. Berbeda dengan laut, lautan biasanya lebih dalam, ada palungnya dan menakutkan.
• Anecdote (anekdot) merupakan suatu cerita lucu atau kisah singkat mengenai pengalaman yang menarik atau tidak umum atau tidak lazim atau kekonyolan atau kelucuannya timbul karena salah pengertian. Tujuannya adalah untuk menghibur (amuse/entertain).
• Procedure (prosedur) merupaka suatu teks yang berisi tentang langkah-langkah dalam melakukan sesuatu atau membuat sesuatu atau mengoperasikan sesuatu. Urutan isi dalam wacana : Goal - Materials - Steps. Dalam prosedur disajikan langkah-langkah terurut untuk menuntun pembaca dalam melakukan sesuatu sehingga menghasilkan sesuatu yang sama apabila dikerjakan dengan urutan yang sama. Contoh: Cara membuat mie, menelpon di telepon umum, cara mengoperasikan TV/HP, dan lain-lain. Ciri-cirinya ada langkah-langkah terurut yang harus dilakukan. Tujuan prosedur adalah memberi informasi (to inform) agar pembaca bisa melakukan sendiri untuk mendapatkan hasil serupa.
• Report (laporan) adalah laporan dari hasil pengamatan, penelitian, pengukuran, wawancara, dan lain-lain mengenai gejala alam atau sosial. Perbedaan recount dengan report adalah kalau report tidak ada bumbu-bumbunya, semua fakta atau berdasarkan penelitian atau pengamatan saja, apa adanya, sedangkan kalau recount ada ungkapan atau penilaian atau perasaan pribadi penulis yang sifatnya subjektif. Perbedaan report dengan descriptive: report dimulai dengan data, descriptive dimulai dengan definisi.
• http://cancanny.blogspot.com/2010/12/text-dalam-wacana.html

Manfaat Pepaya

atu
Buah pepaya mengandung berbagai jenis enzim, vitamin dan mineral. Kandungan vitamin A-nya lebih banyak daripada wortel, vitamin C-nya lebih tinggi daripada jeruk. Kaya pula dengan vitamin B kompleks & vitamin E.
Dua
Buah pepaya mengandung enzim papain. Enzim ini sangat aktif dan memiliki kemampuan mempercepat proses pencernaan protein. Mencerna protein merupakan problem utama yang umumnya dihadapi banyak orang dalam pola makan sehari-hari. Tubuh mempunyai keterbatasan dalam mencerba protein yang disebabkan kurangnya pengeluaran asam hidroklorat di lambung.
Tiga
Kadar protein dalam buah pepaya tidak terlalu tinggi, hanya 4-6 gram per kilogram berat buah. Tapi julah yang sedikit ini hampir seluruhnya dapat dicerna dan diserap tubuh. Ini disebabkan enzim papain dalam buah pepaya mampu mencerna zat sebanyak 35 kali lebih besar dari ukurannya sendiri. Daya cerna terhadap protein ini mengingatkan kita untuk lebih cermat memilih makanan, Bahwa makanan yang mengandung protein tinggi belum tenti bisa bermanfaat bagi tubuh. Yang penting adalah mudah atau tidaknya protein itu diserap tubuh.
Empat
Papain bisa memecah protein menjadi arginin. Senyawa arginin merupakan salah satu asam amino esensial yang dalam kondisi normal tidak bisa diproduksi tubuh dan biasa diperoleh melalui makanan seperti telur dan ragi. Namun bila enzim papain terlibat dalam proses pencerbaan protein, secara alami sebagian protein dapat diubah menjadi arginin. Proses pembentukan arginin dengan papain ini turut mempengaruhi produksi hormon pertumbuhan manusia yang populer dengan sebutan human growth hormone (HSG), sebab arginin merupakan salah satu sarat wajib dalam pembentukan HGH. Nah, HGH inilah yang membantu meningkatkan kesehatan otot dan mengurangi penumpukan lemak di tubuh. Informasi penting lain, uji laboratorium menunjukkan arginin berfungsi menghambat pertumbuhan sel-sel kanker payudara.
Lima
Papain juga dapat memecah makanan yang mengandung protein hingga terbentuk berbagai senyawa asam amino yang bersifat autointoxicating atau otomatis menghilangkan terbentuknya substansi yang tidak diinginkan akibat pencernaan yang tidak sempurna. Tekanan darah tinggi, susah buang air besar, radang sendi, epilepsi dan kencing manis merupakan penyakit-penyakit yang muncul karena proses pencernaan makanan yang tidak sempurna. Papain tidak selalu dapat mencegahnya, namun setidaknya dapat meminimalkan efek negatif yang muncul. Yang jelas papain dapat membantu mewujudkan proses pencenaan makanan yang lebih baik.
Enam
Papain berfungsi membantu pengaturan asam amino dan membantu mengeluarkan racun tubuh. Dengan cara ini sistem kekebalan tubuh dapat ditingkatkan.
Tujuh
Pepaya juga dapat mempercepat pencernaan karbohidrat dan lemak. Enzim papain mampu memecah serat-serat daging, sehingga daging lebih mudah dicerna. Tidak heran bila pepaya sering dijadikan bahan pengempuk daging, terutama untuk pembuatan sate atau masakan semur.
Delapan
Pepaya memiliki sifat antiseptik dan membantu mencegah perkembangbiakan bakteri yang merugikan di dalam usus. Pepaya membantu menormalkan pH usus sehingga keadaan flora usus pun menjadi normal.
Sembilan
Papain terbentuk di seluruh bagian buah, baik kulit, daging buah, maupun bijinya. Jadi sebaiknya pepaya dimanfaatkan secara seutuhnya. Malah, bagi mereka yang mengalami masalah pencernaan, disarankan untuk mengonsumsi buah pepaya beserta bijinya.
Sepuluh
Buah yang masih mengkal atau separuh matang memiliki kandungan nutrisi yang lebih tinggi dari buah matang. Namun wanita yang ingin memiliki anak atau sedang hamil dilarang mengonsumsinya, karena buah mentah dan mengkal mempunyai efek menggugurkan kandungan. Karena efek yang satu ini, di berbagai negara, seperti Papua Nugini dan Peru, pepaya digunakan sebagai alat kontrasepsi. Saran untuk wanita hamil, bila ingin mendapatkan khasiat pepaya, makanlah buah yang sudah matang saja.


http://blog.andrisetiawan.com/2006/07/15/manfaat-pepaya/